TRANSFORMATION OF EMPLOYMENT FORMS UNDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIGITAL TOURISM PLATFORMS IN UZBEKISTAN: AN ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL AND LABOUR RELATIONS
Abstract
The article examines how the development of digital tourism platforms in Uzbekistan is transforming employment forms and reshaping social and labour relations in the sector. It focuses on the spread of platform-based intermediation, online booking and smart tourism services, and analyses their implications for job creation, job quality, and social protection. Drawing on international literature on the platform economy and recent evidence on tourism digitalisation in emerging markets, the study develops an analytical framework to classify new employment forms and identify associated opportunities and risks. The results show a gradual shift from standard, full-time employment towards more flexible and hybrid forms, including gig work, freelancing and self-employment mediated by online platforms. The paper concludes by outlining policy directions to better regulate platform-mediated work in Uzbekistan’s tourism sector and to support decent work in a rapidly digitalising environment.
References
1. Ebelin, L. (2019) ‘Social protection of platform workers in the European Union’, European Student Think Tank Policy Brief, July. Available at: https://www.esthinktank.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/EST-YE_19-07_Ebelin.pdf
2. European Parliament (2017) The social protection of workers in the platform economy. Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/614184/IPOL_STU(2017)614184_EN.pdf
3. International Labour Office (2023) Decent work in the platform economy. Geneva: ILO. Available at: https://wfuna.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/wcms_855048.pdf
4. Lee, H., Koo, C. and Chung, N. (2024) ‘Assessing the economic effects of investment in smart tourism platform’, Tourism Economics. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/13548166241263643
5. OECD (2021) Preparing the tourism workforce for the digital future. OECD Tourism Papers, No. 2021/02. Paris: OECD Publishing. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/preparing-the-tourism-workforce-for-the-digital-future_9258d999-en.html
6. UN Tourism (UNWTO) (n.d.) Digital transformation. Available at: https://www.unwto.org/digital-transformation
7. UN Tourism (UNWTO) (2020) Measuring employment in the tourism industries – Guide with best practices. Geneva/Madrid: UNWTO and ILO. Summary available at: https://www.unwto.org/standards/cooperation-ilo
8. UN Tourism (UNWTO) and ILO (2024) ‘UN Tourism and ILO launch employment dataset to support monitoring of the SDGs’, UN Tourism News, 30 September. Available at: https://www.unwto.org/news/un-tourism-and-ilo-launch-employment-dataset-to-support-monitoring-of-the-sdgs
9. World Bank (2018) ‘Digital platforms and the future of tourism’, World Bank Feature Story, 24 September. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/09/25/digital-platforms-and-the-future-of-tourism-a-world-tourism-celebration
10. World Federation of United Nations Associations (WFUNA) (n.d.) Decent work in the platform economy. Available at: https://wfuna.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/wcms_855048.pdf
11. Al Jazeera (2026) ‘UN adopts treaty setting standards for gig economy workers’, Al Jazeera, 12 June. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/6/12/un-adopts-treaty-setting-standards-for-gig-economy-workers
12. Dredge, D. et al. (2018) Digitalisation in tourism: In-depth analysis of challenges and opportunities. Aalborg: Aalborg University for the European Commission EASME. Available at: https://www.clustercollaboration.eu/eu-initiatives/digitalisation-tourism-depth-analysis-challenges-and-opportunities
13. Sundararajan, A. (2016) The sharing economy: The end of employment and the rise of crowd-based capitalism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
14. Taran, A. et al. (2019) The platformisation of work in Europe. Brussels: FEPS. Available at: https://feps-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/The-platformisation-of-work-in-Europe.pdf
